State Competition and Higher Education A Race to Essay Example For Students

State Competition and Higher Education: A Race to Essay the Top? With MarkInterstate Competition in Health and Welfare Programs (with Mark Rom) Does state control over redistributive programs make them less generous? Most analyses of interstate competition over welfare (known colloquially as the race to the bottom, or RTB) focus solely on benefit levels for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This paper broadens the analysis to cover multiple welfare programs, multiple measures of generosity, and multiple indicators of state competition. Doing so has two main benefits. First, we can distinguish between competitive behavior by states and intrinsic regional covariation. We examine welfare programs under state control and exempt from it, and include indicators of symmetric and asymmetric competition, and argue that the RTB requires that competitive pressure must restrict welfare generosity, and that this restriction must be present in welfare programs over which states have control and absent from programs exempt from state contr ol. Second, we evaluate multiple measures and programs and so can generalize theories about interstate competition and redistribution. To do so we examine benefits, access, and cost for the AFDC, Medicaid, Medicare and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs between 1975 and 1995. A multivariate model yields strong evidence that state control over redistribution leads across the board to restrictive health and welfare policy. We will write a custom essay on State Competition and Higher Education: A Race to specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Interstate Competition in Health and Welfare Programs (with Mark Rom) Does state control over redistributive programs make them less generous? Most analyses of interstate competition over welfare (known colloquially as the race to the bottom, or RTB) focus solely on benefit levels for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This paper broadens the analysis to cover multiple welfare programs, multiple measures of generosity, and multiple indicators of state competition. Doing so has two main benefits. First, we can distinguish between competitive behavior by states and intrinsic regional covariation. We examine welfare programs under state control and exempt from it, and include indicators of symmetric and asymmetric competition, and argue that the RTB requires that competitive pressure must restrict welfare generosity, and that this restriction must be present in welfare programs over which states have control and absent from programs exempt from state control. Second, we eva luate multiple measures and programs and so can generalize theories about interstate competition and redistribution. To do so we examine benefits, access, and cost for the AFDC, Medicaid, Medicare and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs between 1975 and 1995. A multivariate model yields strong evidence that state control over redistribution leads across the board to restrictive health and welfare policy. Interstate Competition in Health and Welfare Programs (with Mark Rom) Does state control over redistributive programs make them less generous? Most analyses of interstate competition over welfare (known colloquially as the race to the bottom, or RTB) focus solely on benefit levels for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This paper broadens the analysis to cover multiple welfare programs, multiple measures of generosity, and multiple indicators of state competition. Doing so has two main benefits. First, we can distinguish between competitive behavior by states and intrinsic regional covariation. We examine welfare programs under state control and exempt from it, and include indicators of symmetric and asymmetric competition, and argue that the RTB requires that competitive pressure must restrict welfare generosity, and that this restriction must be present in welfare programs over which states have control and absent from programs exempt from state control. Second, we eva luate multiple measures and programs and so can generalize theories about interstate competition and redistribution. To do so we examine benefits, access, and cost for the AFDC, Medicaid, Medicare and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs between 1975 and 1995. A multivariate model yields strong evidence that state control over redistribution leads across the board to restrictive health and welfare policy. .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .postImageUrl , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:hover , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:visited , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:active { border:0!important; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:active , .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904 .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud8ea5e20ca364ecb18a6790f6682e904:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Electronic Voting and What Should be Done EssayInterstate Competition in Health and Welfare Programs (with Mark Rom) Does state control over redistributive programs make them less generous? Most analyses of interstate competition over welfare (known colloquially as the race to the bottom, or RTB) focus solely on benefit levels for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This paper broadens the analysis to cover multiple welfare programs, multiple measures of generosity, and multiple indicators of state competition. Doing so has two main

The Influence of Supply and Demand on Inflation

The Influence of Supply and Demand on Inflation Inflation is an increase in the price of a basket of goods and services that is representative of the economy as a whole. In other words, inflation is an upward movement in the average level of prices, as defined in Economics by Parkin and Bade. Its opposite is deflation, a downward movement in the average level of prices. The boundary between inflation and deflation is price stability. The Link Between Inflation and Money An old adage holds that inflation is too many dollars chasing too few goods. Because inflation is a rise in the general level of prices, it is intrinsically linked to  money.   To understand how inflation works, imagine a world that only has two  commodities: oranges picked from orange trees and paper money printed by the government. In a drought year when oranges are scarce, one would expect to see the price of oranges rise, because quite a few dollars would be chasing very few oranges. Conversely, if there was a record orange crop, one would expect to see the price of oranges fall because orange sellers would need to reduce their prices in order to clear their inventory. These scenarios represent inflation and deflation, respectively. However, in the real world, inflation and deflation are changes in the average price of all goods and services, not just one. Altering the Money Supply Inflation and deflation can also result when the amount of  money in the system  changes. If the government decides to print a lot of money, then dollars will become plentiful relative to oranges, as in the earlier drought example.   Thus, inflation is caused by the number of dollars rising relative to the number of oranges (goods and services). Similarly, deflation is caused by the number of dollars falling relative to the number of ​oranges (goods and services). Therefore, inflation is caused by a combination of four factors: the supply of money goes up, the supply of other goods goes down, demand for money goes down and demand for other goods goes up. These four factors are thus linked to the basics of supply and demand. Different Types of Inflation Now that we have covered the basics of inflation, it is important to note that there are many types of inflation. These types of inflation are differentiated from each other by the cause that drives the price increase. To give you a taste, lets briefly go over ​cost-push inflation and demand-pull inflation.   Cost-push inflation is a result of a decrease in aggregate supply. Aggregate supply is the supply of goods, and a decrease in aggregate supply is mainly caused by an increase in wage rate or an increase in the price of raw materials. Essentially,  prices for consumers are pushed up  by increases in the cost of production. Demand-pull inflation occurs when there is an increase in aggregate demand. Simply put, consider how when demand increases, prices are pulled higher.

Auteur theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Auteur theory - Essay Example Auteurism, or film analysis based on the idea of a directorial vision, grew out of his ideas. It spread to the United Kingdom, where the review Movie became its first primary practitioner. In the United States, Andrew Sarris introduced it in his 1962 essay â€Å"Notes on the Auteur Theory.† Sarris proposed some minimal requirements for a director to be considered an auteur: the director must demonstrate a level of competence in technique, evoke an individual style in terms of how a movie feels and looks, and even terms of overall theme. His work The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968, earned a reputation as the primary text for auteurism (Auteur theory). Auteurism has had its critics. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker objected to the idea of giving the director so much credit for a project that takes so many people to complete – not just the already mentioned scriptwriter, but the cinematographer as well. Also, auteurism can contribute greatly to the cost s of making a movie, and directors who develop a record of financial losses will not be able to bring a message of any kind to the big screen (Auteur theory). Also, New Criticism challenged auteur theory with its idea of the â€Å"intentional fallacy.† This referred to the idea that the words on a page of literature, or the images on a movie screen, are more important than the intentions of the author, or the intentions of the director. Because each viewer will approach a movie with a unique set of experiences and biases., the director's intention may never filter through the images and reach the mind of the viewer. In any discussion of directors who are considered auteurs, the name of Krzysztof Kieslowski comes to the forefront. Ironically, Kieslowski entered the study of film as a sort of detour on his original career path, which involved a desire to become a theater director. It was only when the College for Theater Technicians lacked a program for theater directors that he decided to study film as well (Krzysztof Kieslowski). Sieglohr posited that an auteur will see national identity as ripe fodder for "investigation and excavation" (Hill (Year) p. ). While Three Colors takes a look at the special significance of the three colors of the French flag, Kieslowski's early work took a look, as well, at the Polish national experience. As he studied film more extensively, he decided to make documentaries rather than directing plays. His first projects focused on the daily routines of workers, soldiers, and other citizens. However, even though Kieslowski's intentions were not to make political statements, even his attempts to depict the lives of Polish citizens realistically ran afoul of the censoring

Federalism and the Accommodation of Diversity in Ethiopia Research Paper

Federalism and the Accommodation of Diversity in Ethiopia - Research Paper Example The distribution of power on the basis of legislative, executive, and judicial dimension among the federal government and states assists in creating strategic framework for economic, social, and development policies. The constituent units of federalism in Ethiopia are the House of Peoples Representatives (HoPR) and the House of Federation (HoF). The HoF acts as the balancing agent on the contentious issues between states represented by HoPR. Although the systematic design of federalism in Ethiopia resembles with the multicultural federation in other countries, the inclusion of the Nations and Nationalities along with people distinguishes it from the traditional standards of including only people. The constitution requires the congruity between all these three elements- nations, nationality, and people. This raises the concern for official recognition of the languages from various section of population at both state and federal level to protect their identity. The 1995 Federal Constitution defines Amharic as the official language of the federal and empowers the members of states to choose their languages to preserve the cultural identity along with maintaining national unity.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Business Ethics - Essay Example In a contemporary organisation, ethical issues include fair trade, sustainability, globalisation and most importantly corporate social responsibility. According to the traditional approach, the key objectives of the entity are to make profits and come up strategies of attaining this (Ardalan, 2008:513). The modern approach states the organisation’s performance and accountability of the organisation. The modern ethical organisation of an entity in the twenty first century explains that success of the entity is determined by the combination of the 4Ps strategy. As earlier mentioned, the organisation’s main objective is to make profits for the shareholders. The major characteristic of an ethical organisation is one that puts the matters affecting the people at heart (Ardalan, 2008:514). These include employees, customers, suppliers, the community at large, stakeholders and other parties that are interested in the company’s operations. It can be observed that stakeho lders are either internal or external and have a huge impact on the organisation’s ethics. The organisation should take environmental issues in consideration with regards to sustainability and fair trade (Maignan and Ferrell, 2004:45). The company has a social responsibility over the global environment and should take into account the expectations of the public. The core ethical principles of the entity are integrity, truth and honesty. These principles have to be in line with the environment in which it operates and within the organisation. This enhances the sustained success of the entity in the long run. In the contemporary business environment ethics should be constantly managed in an entity and it is imperative to understand the ethical value of the company (Maignan and Ferrel, 2005:34). An analysis of the elements in an ethical management framework to give a deeper understanding of the ethical status of an entity should be carried out. Firstly, the leadership and senior management has to show commitment towards the program (Maignan and Ferrel, 2004:34). Secondly, there should be an assessment of the efficiency of ethical value in the organisation. Thirdly, there should be codification of the ethics and proper communication within the entity (Maignan and Ferrell, 2005:45). Fourthly, there should be formalisation of the code of ethics through proper training and communication (Maignan and Ferrel, 2005:34). Lastly, the code of ethics should be integrated into the organisation’s culture. In order to achieve this, the leadership should be on the forefront in ensuring the company’s ethics are upheld. Some of the unethical considerations in the operations of the organisation entail issues that are not necessarily illegal but are viewed as being unethical (Maignan and Ferrell, 2004:45). Examples of such cases include lack of transparency, exploitation as to maximise profits, environmental pollution, and misuse of power, reputation and confli ct. The organisation’s activities are impacted directly or indirectly by the stakeholders (Maignan and Ferrel, 2005:34). External stakeholders include regulatory bodies, advertising agencies, competitors, consumers and other interest groups. The internal stake holders include the entity’s top management, employees and other departments in the company (Maig

Investigation of Oral Contraceptives

Investigation of Oral Contraceptives Oral Contraceptives Made by LAB GROUP: C2 Lab Instructors: A.L/ Ahmed Refaat Spring 2015 Oral Contraception: Contraception can be defined as the method of prevention of pregnancy also referred to as Birth Control medication. Mainly contraceptives are composed of hormones thus, referred to as hormonal contraceptives they consist of synthetic sex hormones female based hormones such as estrogen or progestin. Their mechanism of action is to block the process of ovulation hence, preventing pregnancy. Methods of contraception: There are a lot of contraception methods theyre mainly divided into physical-mechanical or chemical methods. Physical-mechanical methods include: Caps: it is a thin soft silicone prevents sperm penetration by covering the cervix. Male and female condoms Contraceptive Implants: flexible and small forty mm long tube. A trained professional usually inserts the implant; it stops the release of eggs from the ovary. Diaphragms: placed inside the vagina before intercourse, it covers the cervix as well. IUD: T-shaped intrauterine device placed inside the womb by a specialized professional; it terminates sperms and eggs in the fallopian tube or womb. IUS: plastic T-shaped intrauterine system placed inside the womb by a physician, it releases progestogen (steroid) that thickens the mucus in the cervix making it impossible for a sperm to penetrate it. Vaginal ring: a plastic soft and ring shaped placed inside the vagina, releases as well progestogen with the same effects as the IUS. Natural family planning Chemical methods include: Combined pills Contraceptive patches Progestogen pill Contraceptive injection There are permanent methods of contraception such as: Vasectomy in males Sterilization or sealing of the fallopian tube in females Classification of drugs is mainly based on the type of chemical or active ingredient. Oral contraceptives are classified into 3 categories: Combination (estrogen/progestin) oral contraceptives Progestin only based oral contraceptives Effects of different oral contraceptives Oral contraceptive Drugs: Ortho Micronor (Norethindrone): Drug class: It is a First generation Progestin. It is less androgenic than second generation progestin such as levonorgestrel. Mechanism of action: Ortho Micronor is a progestin-only contraceptive oral pill. It is designed for the prevention of pregnancy by suppressing ovulation in nearly half of the users, thickening the cervical mucus to prevent sperm penetration, and the reduction of LH midcycle tops FSH, it slows the motility of the ovum altering the endometrium and the fallopian tubes. Pharmacological action: Progestin oral contraceptives are used for the prevention of pregnancy. Pharmacokinetics: Serum progesterone levels peak after oral administration in about two hours, then through distribution and rapid elimination. In 24 hours after drug intake, serum levels are close to the base line, which makes the efficiency depends on rigid adherence to the dosage. There are wide variations between individual users in serum levels. The results of the progestin administration lower the levels of serum progesterone balance and a shorter half-life of the concomitant administration with estrogens. Contraindications: Carcinoma of the breast suspected pregnancy Hypersensitivity to any component of this product liver disease Drug interactions: Thyroxine concentrations inevitably decrease eventually, because there is a decrease in main binding thyroid globulin The efficacy of pills that are progestin based only is reduced by the (HEID) or hepatic enzyme-inducing drugs for example carbamazepine, anticonvulsants phenytoin, and the antituberculosis drug rifampin and barbiturates. Side-effects: Vomiting, Nausea, bloating, Vaginal bleeding, headache Plan B (levonorgestrel): Drug class: Second Generation progestin. Used worldwide and FDA approves as plan B. It has high androgenic effects. Pharmacokinetics: No particular examination of irrefutably for the bioavailability of plan B (levonorgestrel) in people has been directed. Be that as it may, writing demonstrates that levonorgestrel is quickly and totally assimilated after oral organization (bioavailability around 100%) and is not subject to first pass digestion system. After a solitary measurements of Arrangement plan B (levonorgestrel) (0.75 mg) regulated to 16 ladies under fasting conditions, greatest serum centralizations of levonorgestrel are 14.1  ± 7.7 ng/mL (mean  ± SD) at a normal of 1.6  ± 0.7 hours. Pharmacological action: Plan B is proposed to avert pregnancy after known or suspected prophylactic disappointment or unprotected intercourse. Mechanism of action: Crisis contraceptives are not successful if the lady is now pregnant. Plan B (levonorgestrel) is accepted to go about as a crisis prophylactic essentially by avoiding ovulation or preparation (by modifying tubal transport of sperm and/or ova). Whats more, it may hinder implantation (by modifying the endometrium). It is not successful once the methodology of implantation has started. Side effects: Nausea Headache Breast tenderness Fatigue Vomiting Abdominal pain Diarrhea Contraindications: It is not prescribed for utilization in the accompanying conditions: Known or suspected pregnancy Hypersensitivity to any segment of the drug Drug interactions: Hypothetically, the adequacy of low-measurement progestin-just pills is diminished by hepatic catalyst instigating medications, for example, the anticonvulsants carbamazepine, phenytoin, anti- tuberculosis and barbiturates. Yasmin (drospirenone/ethinyl estradiol): Drug class: Third generation oral contraceptive. It is mostly disliked due to dangerous side effects. Pharmacokinetics: Irrefutably the bioavailability of DRSP from a solitary element tablet is around 76%. Unquestionably the bioavailability of EE is pretty nearly 40% as a consequence of presystemic conjugation and first-pass digestion system. Indisputably the bioavailability of Yasmin, which is a mix tablet of EE and DRSP, it has not been assessed. Serum convergances of DRSP and EE arrived at top levels inside 1-2 hours after organization of Yasmin. Pharmacodynamics: Pharmacodynamic studies were not conducted specifically with Yasmin. Therapeutic use: Yasmin is demonstrated for utilization by ladies to avert pregnancy. Mechanism of action: COCs bring down the risk of getting to be pregnant basically by smothering ovulation. Other conceivable components may incorporate cervical bodily fluid changes that restrain sperm entrance and endometrial changes that decrease the probability of implantation. Side effects: Irregular uterus bleeding Headache Nausea Liver disease Breast tenderness Contraindications: Dont endorse Yasmin to ladies who are known to have the accompanying: Renal impedance Adrenal deficiency Hypertension Have breast cancer Have coronary vein illness Have thrombogenicvalvular or thrombogenic mood illnesses of the heart (for instance, subacute bacterial endocarditis with valvular malady, or atrial fibrillation) Have Diabetes mellitus Drug interactions: Substances reducing the viability of COCs: Medications or home grown items that incite certain chemicals, including cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4), may diminish the adequacy of COCs or build achievement dying. Effects of Joined Oral Contraceptives on Different Medications COCs containing EE may hinder the digestion system of different mixes. Potential to Build Serum Potassium Focus: There is a potential for an increment in serum potassium fixation in ladies bringing Yasmin with different medications. Mircette (desogestrel/ethinyl estradiol and ethinyl estradiol): Second generation Mechanism of action: The mechanism of action of it works over four directions: suppression of the gonadotropins alteration changes in the mucus which make it hard and difficult to the sperm to entire the uterus The endometrial changes that reduce the likelihood of the implantation process inhibition of ovulation from happening Pharmacokinetics: The substance desogestrel is completely and fast absorbed then converted to the active form which is etonogestrel after taking the oral route of administration the bioavailability was measured and found approximately 100%; by taking serum levels of etonogestrel . Therapeutic uses: It is used to prevent the pregnancy. Side effects: Vomiting Gastrointestinal symptoms (such as abdominal cramps and bloating) Nausea problems in menstruation process Breast changes:, enlargement, tenderness , and secretion Contraindications: Past problems concerning deep vein Thrombophlebitis  or thromboembolic disorders If there is any predication for breast carcinoma or current one Drug interactions: Increase in factors ix ,vii,viii,x and prothrombin levels this will cause increase in nor adrenline induced platelets aggregation Increase in other binding proteins in serum levels Increase in the levels of thyroid binding globulin References: Contraceptives. (2015, February 17) Drugs.com Available at:  http://www.drugs.com/drug-class/contraceptives.html (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Contraception. Division Of Reproductive Health. (2015, February 24) CDC Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/contraception.htm  (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Types Of Oral Contraceptives. (2010, December 12) OralContraceptives.com Available at: http://www.oralcontraceptives.com/about_types.asp (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Contraception Guide. (2015, February 2) nhs.uk Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/contraception-guide/Pages/contraception.aspx  (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Plan B. (2007, May 24) rxlist.com (Drug index) Available at:  http://www.rxlist.com/plan-b-drug.htm  (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Yasmin. (2012, April 23) rxlist.com (Drug index) Available at:  http://www.rxlist.com/yasmin-drug.htm  (Accessed: 5 March 2015) Ortho Micronor. (2008, July 24) rxlist.com (Drug index) Available at: http://www.rxlist.com/ortho-micronor-drug.htm  (Accessed: 12 March 2015) Mircette. (2012, July 27) rxlist.com (Drug index) Available at:  http://www.rxlist.com/mircette-drug.htm (Accessed: 12 March 2015)

Growing Up In A Single-Parent Family Essay -- Single Parent Family Pap

Growing Up In A Single-Parent Family With the divorce rate as high as it is, more and more children are growing up in single-parent families. Ideally, it is better for children to live with their mom and dad happily married; however, children who grow up in single-parent households can still be well- adjusted children, teenagers, and adults. Although there are always exceptions to every rule, for the most part, children who grow up in single-parent working households are more mature, realistic and independent. First, in a single-parent working family, children tend to be more mature. The children are more mature because they often have to be responsible for themselves. For example, if their mom or dad has to work late, or if they work evenings, the children are in control of when to do their homework or even in some cases when to go to bed. Also, children in this environment or situation sometimes have to be responsible for taking care of their brother, sister or other close relatives. For example, they have to be re...

Law and Morality Essay

Morality can be described as a set of values common to society, which are normative, specifying the correct course of action in a situation and the limits of what society considers acceptable. Law on the other hand according to Osborn’s Concise Law Dictionary is a rule of conduct imposed and reinforced by the sovereign. A body of principles regognized and applied by the state in the administration of justice. If law is to enforce morals, then it is faced with the problem that what one person considers immoral, another might not, so which viewpoint should the law uphold. This can be seen in the case of Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority (1986) where Mrs Gillick sought a declaration that what she saw as an immoral activity (making contraceptive advice and treatment available to girls under the age of consent) was by nature of its immorality, illegal. This was a moral conflict as some saw this as immoral – it encouraged underage sex – others felt it was moral as young girls would engage in underage sex anyway , but contraceptives would prevent unwanted pregnancies. Which viewpoint would the law support. The House of Lords ruled against Mrs Gillick but stated that they were governed by the relevant statutes rather than moral arguments. What then is the relationship between law and morality. What are the differences and similarities The vast differences between existing theories of the basis of law often fail to notice the fact that they are based on the practice of comparing an act to certain standards in order to determine its legality. [1] Different approaches differ in terms of which standards are compared and assessed, though both ultimately assess acts to certain standards to determine their legality or morality. The two leading theories on the topic are positivism and naturalism – the debate between the two has fuelled theorists for centuries. Many observers of positivism presume that it completely dismisses any role of morality in the application of the law, while naturalism bases the existence and validity of law on moral bases. Although the theories are fundamentally different, it is argued that a link between law and morality is glaringly obvious and unavoidable, no matter which side one chooses to follow or favour. This paper will seek to argue that claims which deny any link between law and morality are weak and flawed at best, and apply in a limited manner to simple, straightforward cases. The mere existence of the ‘hard case’ and of court deliberation provides a great deal of evidence for not only the existence of the link between law and morality, but also the necessity of such a link. The naturalist and positivist theories will be explored in order to assess whether the link between law and morality can survive its critics and strengthen the faith of its followers. Legal Positivism Positivists claim that objective morality simply cannot exist because values consist of different attitudes towards and beliefs about certain values. [2] Attitudes and beliefs differ between individuals and cause us to react to a certain act in a subjective manner. Moral perceptions are predominantly emotional, so that such assessments in the realm of the law cause uncertainty and inconsistency. It also fails to recognise difficult cases and the possibility of new cases arising. The apparent main flaw of positivism is that it is unable to explain the legal deliberation which takes place in the courtroom, particularly the difficult cases which have no apparent ‘yes or no’ answer. The very difficulties posed by interpreting the law and applying it to everyday circumstances are unable to be adequately explained by positivism. Indeed, there is a distinction here between hard and soft positivists; the latter do recognise a form of moral basis upon which written laws are perched. Yet both soft and hard positivists are at pains to explain how hard cases arise, in which there is simply no right or wrong answer, and in which morality may unavoidably take a central role. Morality and the Naturalist Approach Naturalists claim that non-legal considerations such as ideological, moral and political factors are not only relevant to the posited law, but that law is also based on such factors. The central argument of naturalism is that objective knowledge of right and wrong can and does exist, and that this provides the basis for legal decisions as well as for the validity of law. Naturalists such as Aquinas[3] claim that natural law provides the basis of validity for posited laws. Rousseau[4] believes that positive law cannot override or entrench upon certain existing natural rights; Aristotle claims that natural justice exists independently of individual perceptions of or opinions on it. [5] Jeremy Bentham proposed utilitarianism where moral action was the one that produced good for many, even it was at the expense of one – the greatest good for the greatest number. John Stuart Mill’s refinement of the idea argues that while this is true the individual should not have to follow society’s morals and should be free to act as they wish provided they do not harm others. The problem arises in defining who are included in others and what is harm. It is clear that naturalist claims to provide a strong link between law and morality, the latter of the two being a basis upon which the former is based. Judges, when they interpret and apply posited law, often make non-legal considerations in order to apply the law effectively. Naturalism, however, has a major flaw in that it claims the existence of objective morality. There are many case examples which suggest otherwise. [6] One presented with two rather extreme and different concepts of the link (or not) between law and morality. Is it plausible that such a links exists? Is there evidence for such a link, and how does it serve to affect how the law is administered? Does there really need to be objective knowledge of right and wrong in order for the link to be maintained? In order to explore these questions, the ever-elusive ‘difficult case’ will be assessed. It will be argued that the link between law and morality is not weakened by the argument that objective knowledge of right and wrong is nonexistent. The debate over the relationship between law and morality came to the forefront in the Hart/Devlin debate which followed the publication of Wolfenden Report in 1957. The report recommended the legalization of prostitution and homosexuality on the particularly untilitarian basis that â€Å"the law should not intervene in the private lives of citizens or seek to enforce an particular pattern of behaiour further than necessary† to protect others. Hart supported the report’s approach stating that legal enforcement of moral code is unnecessary. Devlin on the other hand was strongly opposed to the report. He felt that society had a certain moral standard which law was obliged to uphold as society would fall apart without a common morality. Devlin felt that this morality should be based on the views of the ‘right-minded person’ and that legislature should adhere to three basic principles: (1) Individuals should be allowed as much freedom and privacy as is possible without compromising morality. (2) Parliament and the judiciary should be cautious about changing laws relating to morality and (3) punishment should be used to prevent actions considered abominable to ‘right-minded people’. Hart opposed this view questioning what was ‘right-minded’ and submitted four reasons for not criminalizing what the ‘right-minded person† objected to. (1)Punishment of someone does harm to them only and if their actions involved no one else this was not right. (2) Free will is very moral, so interferance with free will would be immoral, (3) Free will allows learning through experimentation and (4) legislation surpressing an individual’s sexuality will harm them, as it can affect their emotional state. For the majority of legal issues, judges are not required to deviate from posited law and precedent in order to decide. The law makes murder wrong, and it has been a long-standing principle that taking the life of another is morally abhorrent. Yet what of the ‘hard cases’? What if A kills B in self-defence? What if C forced A to kill B else A lose his own life? What if the application of a law is indeterminate? Can posited law be applied without recourse to moral reasoning? Positivists such as Dworkin and Hart differ in their approach. Dworkin claims that there will always be applicable law,[7] while Hart claims that judges can make non-legal considerations under such circumstances. [8] Hart’s theory is applicable to the less open-textured terms where changes made by non-legal considerations are the result of â€Å"resemblances which can reasonably be defended as both legally relevant and sufficiently close. †[9] The judge thus utilises morality as a way of choosing between pre-existent definitions, without devising his own definitions. Although Hart is classed as a positivist, he does acknowledge a â€Å"core of indisputable truth in the doctrines of natural law†[10] which enables law to be based on something more than simply factual considerations. Hart’s theory can be interpreted as recognising a form of natural law, although he does stipulate that having recourse to moral values does not always ensure that law and its application will be just. This assessment of Hart’s approach is plausible, and it serves to create a link between law and morality which avoids the objective criticism of the naturalists. It provides a strong argument for a link between law and morality which is based on interpretational, social considerations which are evident in the courtroom today. It is perhaps necessary to query: does the law define what is right and wrong, or do we determine good and bad independently of the law? There are certainly evident customs in society which have strong influences on the way we behave. Such customs are not implemented by the law or backed by a sanction; they are simply examples of moral codes within a society which exist independently to the law. Does this mean that law and morality have no connection so that the latter can only be found in customs? Does a moral rule backed by the law become a valid law no matter what its content? It is arguable that even majority abhorrence of an act does not make it an immoral act per se, despite the fact that societies need a shared moral outlook in order to exist. [11] It could thus be suggested that the law is simply an embodiment of the current moral outlook of society; like morality the law changes according to attitudes and social tolerance. It is such observations that cause the positivist shunning of the link between law and morality to become less convincing. It is even arguable that the obeying of law is based on the recognition of the moral rule that law should be obeyed; the threat of sanction is evidently not enough to deter some. It could further be argued that the only reason that legislation has authority as law is because of the moral structure of a society. As has already been mentioned, the law develops and evolves according to moral outlooks; this can be seen where laws prohibiting same sex marriages and abortion have been abolished. If the law were completely disconnected from morality, why has it developed and evolved over time? Why does social pressure to repeal or change law often achieve its goal? The Link Between Law and Morality – Evidence Dworkin claims that courts refer to non-legal (moral) standards when deciding hard cases. Assessing and taking into account moral and political considerations has the potential to create a complex web of law and â€Å"justify the network as a whole†. [12] It is strongly arguable that deciding difficult cases without appealing to non-legal considerations is futile – the reason that such cases are ‘hard’ is because the law does not provide enough direction. However, it is important here to stress that decisions are not free to be made according to personal convictions – judges are on the contrary required to carefully weigh social factors in applying and interpreting the law. Dworkin’s theory in this sense is able to escape the positivist criticism that non-legal convictions are ultimately subjective. Rather, the judge is assigned the difficult interpretative task which is seen constantly in court. This is evident in cases such as that of Re A (Conjoined Twins)[13] in which moral judgements were inevitable and necessary in applying the law to the specific circumstances of the case. Ultimately, the judges were faced with the decision of killing one twin in order to save the other, or to not act and cause the death of both twins. While moral judgements are dangerous ground here, a positivist could not argue that the law as it is could be applied simply and without problem – often the law is simply not enough. The law in this case proved of very little aid – how is one to decide whether A’s life has more importance or value than B’s life? While moral considerations could have caused the decision to fall either way, it must be stressed that such situations must risk the dangerous ground created by moral convictions, particularly because the law provides little guidance. Simple cases indeed provide evidence that a link between law and morality is not only non-existent, but also not necessary. [14] Yet the ever-emerging hard cases cry otherwise; they not only highlight the constant shortcomings of posited law, they also emphasise the need to acknowledge and utilise the link between law and morality. Although theorists claim that natural law need not override positive law, except when the two conflict, this serves to strengthen the link between law and morality. If there is no link between law and morality, then how can conflict occur in the first place? Why does public outrage occur when an ‘unjust’ law breaks the boundaries of social tolerance? Those who claim that there is no link between law and morality utilise the naturalist claim to objective morality as their basis for criticism. Yet the term ‘universal morality’ need not apply to the universe as a whole. It is plausible, and certainly does not discredit the naturalist theory, that ‘universality’ or ‘objectivity’ remains as such despite being applied or interpreted differently between societies. Because the universal moral to preserve life may allow the sick to be killed in primitive societies to save sparse resources for the healthy, while requiring that all efforts be made to save every life possible in richer, more able societies. The moral principle – the preservation of life – still remains existent, it is simply expressed and applied differently between societies. [15] Conclusion There are various theories which discuss how law and morality should relate to each other. The current approach by the legal system seem to be that a common morality , based on traditional values should be maintained by the law as exposed by Devlin. Cases such as Shaw v Director of Public Prosecutions (1961) and Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions ( 1972) made use of the conspiracy to corrupt moral. This had not been done since the 19th century. This was the beginning of the law to attempt to uphold society’s moral values according to Devlin’s doctrine. This approach continued as the more recent case of R v Brown (Anthony) 1992 demonstrates. The defendants had had willingly consented to various sado-masochistic practices and none of them reported it to the police. Yet they were prosecuted and their convictions were upheld by both the House of Lords and The European Court of Human rights, based on public policy to defend the morality of society. Whether or not the law should uphold the moral values of society is still debated. Those who criticise the link between law and morality often rely on the argument that no single opinion of correctness can exist,[16] yet such criticisms presuppose that such a link requires a single notion of correctness or justice. [17] It does not require such a single notion; it merely requires the recognition that legal considerations are often not enough, and that the interpretational practice which takes place is indeed a result of the link between law and morality. To ultimately deny a link between law and morality is to entirely discredit legal precedents, lengthy assessments of judge decisions, and the controversy of many difficult cases. It is also to turn away from the glaringly evident evolutions and changes which have occurred in the legal sphere – to ignore the changing of legal standards according to societal outlooks. Such evidence is difficult to ignore. Upon which other basis does the law stand if it does not reflect the moral tolerances and standards of the society which is subject to it? Bibliography R Alexy, ‘On the Thesis of a Necessary Connection between Law and Morality: Bulygin’s Critique’ (2000) 2 RJ 13, 138-147. T Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologiae’, in Selected Political Writings, JG Dawson (trans), AP D’Entreves (ed) (BB, Oxford 1970). J Bentham, Of Laws in General, HLA Hart (ed) (AP, London 1970a). J Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, JH Burns, HLA Hart (eds) (AP, London 1970b). E Bulygin, ‘Alexy’s Thesis of the Necessary Connection between Law and Morality’ (2002) 2 RJ 13, 133-137. P Devlin, The Enforcement of Morals (OUP, New York 1996). R Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Belknap Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986). J Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (OUP, New York 1980). HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (CP, Oxford 1961). HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OCP, Oxford 1994). DD Raphael, Moral Philosophy (OUP, Oxford 1994). R Wacks, Understanding Jurisprudence (OUP, Oxford 2005). ———————– [1] R Wacks, Understanding Jurisprud). ence (OUP, Oxford 2005 [2] DD Raphael, Moral Philosophy (OUP, Oxford 1994) ch. 2. [3] T Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologiae’, in Selected Political Writings, JG Dawson (trans), AP D’Entreves (ed) (BB, Oxford 1970) pt. 2, qu. 94, art. 2. [4] JJ Rousseau, The Social Contract (OUP, Oxford 1762). [5] Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, H Rackham (trans) (William Heineman, London 1938). [6] Corbett v Corbett (1970) 2 WLR 1306 CA per Ormrod LJ. [7] R Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Belknap Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986) 32-34. [8] HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OCP, Oxford 1994) 145-147. [9] HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (CP, Oxford 1961) 127. [10] HLA Hart, 1994, op. cit. , 146. [11] P Devlin, The Enforcement of Morals (OUP, New York 1996). [12] R Dworkin, 1986, op. cit. , 245. [13] (2000) 4 All ER 961, (2001) 1 FLR 1 CA. [14] J Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (OUP, New York 1980) 33-34. [15] J Finnis, 1980, op. cit. , 34. [16] E Bulygin, ‘Alexy’s Thesis of the Necessary Connection between Law and Morality’ (2002) 2 RJ 13, 133-137. [17] R Alexy, ‘On the Thesis of a Necessary Connection between Law and Morality: Bulygin’s Critique’ (2000) 2 RJ 13, 138-147.

Law Enforcement Essays

Law Enforcement Essays Law Enforcement Essay Law Enforcement Essay Law Enforcement Name: Course: Institution: Instructor: Date: The historical development of police agencies Within North America, local law enforcement agencies have a core function of enforcement of laws. The history of police agencies dates back to the earlier Roman civilizations that were created solely for protecting the rulers from assassination and other threats. Much later in the Middle Ages around 1600 .D., the watch system that was applied in most communities where volunteers patrolled the streets and guarded cities from sunrise to sunset(Berg, 1998). The watch system consisted of close voluntary supervision of the streets and cities by the residents themselves. At the time, there were vigilante groups that took up watch at their premises to combat crime. The increasing level of lawlessness caused administrators such as Alfred the Great to come up with strategies like the pledge system in which all citizens were pledging to participate in any kind of community police work. The pledge system was an amended version of the frankpledge that was a system of tithing. Tithing involved collecting all able-bodied men into a group for behavior regulation purposes. If a tithe failed to apprehend an assailant, the whole group was responsible for compensating the injured party. Consequently, the alarm raised by the chief tithing-man that was popularly called the â€Å"hue and cry†. The frankpledge system aggregated ten tithings into a â€Å"hundred† who were under one constable. The duty of the constable was to mobilize the group of a hundred men and raise their forces. Such ten â€Å"hundreds† made up a â€Å"shire† that was supervised by a shire-reeve. Any exemption to this policy had to be ratified by the shire-reeve, the designated appointee to maintain peace. During the Industrial revolution, many race and class riots took place in Europe and America that challenged the workability of the night watch security. Day watchers were also overwhelmed. At some point, well-off individuals created a section of law enforcers called thief-takers. These were individuals who ere contracted to capture criminals. However, realizing their strategic positions, most thief-takers exploited their contracts to get rich. In return, they would protect the same criminals they were supposed to eliminate. All these failed attempts pitted England, New York and all other urban centers into corruption and lawlessness. Much later around 1750, more institutions that were effective were slowly edging out the watch system. Personal detectives like the famous Bow Street Runners and the Bobbies were well known for their prowess in tracking down criminals. Individuals like Sir Robert Peel introduced professionalism in the maintenance of law and order. These Peelian principles went on to form the foundation by which many police forces and agencies standardize their officers. Sir Robert proposed standards like discipline, appearance, and fair recruitment of police officers. (Beattie, 2012) This prompted administrators in New York City to start a full-time, independent and salaried police force in 1845. These new police officers had uniforms that distinguished them from the rest of the civilians. Apart from their uniforms, these police officers worked all day and night to regulate normal business disruptions in the city. They were armed with weapons and given the mandate to apprehend law-breakers. It is also during this time when state and federal police agencies began to emerge. The Secret Service and the IRS are the best examples in this period. Police agencies and their jurisdiction Jurisdiction can be defined as the area in which a local enforcement agency is restricted to in terms of exercise of power and operations. Typically, jurisdiction covers a specific geographical area that is restricted to a particular agency. Some agencies apply their powers at the country level for example Tobacco Firearms and Explosives, within a country or province or across a collection of many states for example Interpol. At this higher level involving many countries, such agencies mainly offer advisory and coordinative services to other domestic agencies. Law enforcement agencies that operate within a division in a country are referred to as local police. Law enforcement agencies have their jurisdictions divided according to geographical locations for administrative purposes. At the country level, the two agencies operating in the United States are either federal or national. Federal law enforcement agencies have different responsibilities. They are responsible for regulating immigration and border traffic, the protection of national infrastructure, national security and protection of important country officials like the head of state. Federal police agencies also have the regular police responsibilities for example maintenance of law and order alongside general safety. They however do not exercise their authority at the lower levels i.e. divisions. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (F.B.I) is the prominent example of a federal agency in USA. State enforcement agencies operate within their specific states. Their main functions include investigations into criminal activities and regular patrols on the state’s borders. State police are part of the Department of Public Safety and work closely with the Bureau of Investigation found in the Attorney General’s office within the same state. Within these states, other enforcement divisions are not state police for instance campus police or departments of correction. These other agencies work hand in hand with the state police. The Alabama, North Dakota and Texas Highway patrols are some examples of state police.The lowest category of law enforcers is the county police. Their jurisdictions cover the different counties found within states. For smaller and less developed areas, the Sherriff’s office provides the security services for the people in a certain county. The Sherriff acts as both the county police and the sheriff in most situations. In some counties, municipal police operate under the sheriffs within the various counties. Many towns and cities have their own municipal agencies. The functions of this agency are quite similar to the federal agencies. The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police is one example.(Cunningham, Taylor Hallcrest Systems, 1985).The role of police agencies in contemporary societyPolice agencies have three main roles that stand out in the contemporary society. First, the maintenance of law and order in the society is the most important role played by the police. This mandate requires police to maintain peaceful environment by preventing behavior that may lead to any disturbance of tranquility. Under this function, police are also responsible for the detection and prevention of crime without which there would be chaos in the society (Cole Smith, 2004). The police also play a major role in law enforcement .The police exercise these powers whenever a law is violated. In such instances, the police have to identify the s uspect and apprehend them for further investigation.The Department of Justice and other similar branches in other governments rely heavily on the efficiency of the police to facilitate justice as well as safety. Lastly, police agencies provide different types of services to the public. These may include tourist guidance, civil education and providing disaster relief support. In more developed countries, police officers assist in roadside auto problems, finding lost property and residential security. At the national level, the federal police assist in maintaining national security. This includes deterring threats of terrorist attacks that have been a major issue for the United States.References Beattie, J. M. (2012). The first English detectives: The Bow Street Runners and the policing of London, 1750-1840. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Berg, B. L. (1991). Law enforcement: An introduction to police in society. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Cole, G. F., Smith, C. E. (2004). The American system of criminal justice. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Cunningham, W. C., Taylor, T. H., Hallcrest Systems, Inc. (1985). The Hallcrest report: Private security and police in America. Portland, or: Chancellor Press.

The Probability of Rolling a Yahtzee

The Probability of Rolling a Yahtzee Yahtzee is a dice game involving a combination of chance and strategy. A player begins their turn by rolling five dice. After this roll, the player may decide to re-roll any number of the dice. At most, there are a total of three rolls for each turn. Following these three rolls, the result of the dice is entered onto a score sheet. This score sheet contains different categories, such as a full house or large straight.  Each of the categories is satisfied with different combinations of dice. The most difficult category to fill-in is that of a Yahtzee. A Yahtzee occurs when a player rolls five of the same number. Just how unlikely is a Yahtzee? This is a problem that is much more complicated than finding probabilities for two or even three dice. The main reason is that there are many ways to obtain five matching dice during three rolls. We can calculate the probability of rolling a Yahtzee by using the combinatorics formula for combinations, and by breaking the problem into several mutually exclusive cases. One Roll The easiest case to consider is obtaining a Yahtzee immediately on the first roll. We will first look at the probability of rolling a particular Yahtzee of five twos, and then easily extend this to the probability of any Yahtzee. The probability of rolling a two is 1/6, and the outcome of each die is independent of the rest. Thus the probability of rolling five twos is (1/6) x (1/6) x (1/6) x (1/6) x (1/6) 1/7776. The probability of rolling five of a kind of any other number is also 1/7776. Since there are a total of six different numbers on a die, we multiply the above probability by 6. This means that the probability of a Yahtzee on the first roll is 6 x 1/7776 1/1296 0.08 percent. Two Rolls If we roll anything other than five of a kind of the first roll, we will have to re-roll some of our dice to try to get a Yahtzee. Suppose that our first roll has four of a kind. we would re-roll the one die that doesn’t match and then get a Yahtzee on this second roll. The probability of rolling a total of five twos in this way is found as follows: On the first roll, we have four twos. Since there is a probability 1/6 of rolling a two, and 5/6 of not rolling a two, we multiply (1/6) x (1/6) x (1/6) x (1/6) x (5/6) 5/7776.Any of the five dice rolled could be the non-two. We use our combination formula for C(5, 1) 5 to count how many ways we can roll four twos and something that is not a two.We multiply and see that the probability of rolling exactly four twos on the first roll is 25/7776.On the second roll, we need to calculate the probability of rolling one two. This is 1/6. Thus the probability of rolling a Yahtzee of twos in the above way is (25/7776) x (1/6) 25/46656. To find the probability of rolling any Yahtzee in this way is found by multiplying the above probability by 6 because there are six different numbers on a die. This gives a probability of 6 x 25/46656 0.32 percent. But this is not the only way to roll a Yahtzee with two rolls. All of the following probabilities are found in much the same way as above: We could roll three of a kind, and then two dice that match on our second roll. The probability of this is 6 x C(5 ,3) x (25/7776) x (1/36) 0.54 percent.We could roll a matching pair, and on our second roll three dice that match. The probability of this is 6 x C(5, 2) x (100/7776) x (1/216) 0.36 percent.We could roll five different dice, save one die from our first roll, then roll four dice that match on the second roll. The probability of this is (6!/7776) x (1/1296) 0.01 percent. The above cases are mutually exclusive. This means that to calculate the probability of rolling a Yahtzee in two rolls, we add the above probabilities together and we have is approximately 1.23 percent. Three Rolls For the most complicated situation yet, we will now examine the case where we use all three of our rolls to obtain a Yahtzee. We could do this in several ways and must account for all of them. The probabilities of these possibilities are calculated below: The probability of rolling four of a kind, then nothing, then matching the last die on the last roll is 6 x C(5, 4) x (5/7776) x (5/6) x (1/6) 0.27 percent.The probability of rolling three of a kind, then nothing, then matching with the correct pair on the last roll is 6 x C(5, 3) x (25/7776) x (25/36) x (1/36) 0.37 percent.The probability of rolling a matching pair, then nothing, then matching with the correct three of a kind on the third roll is 6 x C(5, 2) x (100/7776) x (125/216) x (1/216) 0.21 percent.The probability of rolling a single die, then nothing matching this, then matching with the correct four of a kind on the third roll is (6!/7776) x (625/1296) x (1/1296) 0.003 percent.The probability of rolling three of a kind, matching an additional die on the next roll, followed by matching the fifth die on the third roll is 6 x C(5, 3) x (25/7776) x C(2, 1) x (5/36) x (1/6) 0.89 percent.The probability of rolling a pair, matching an additional pair on the next roll, followe d by matching the fifth die on the third roll is 6 x C(5, 2) x (100/7776) x C(3, 2) x (5/216) x (1/6) 0.89 percent. The probability of rolling a pair, matching an additional die on the next roll, followed by matching the last two dice on the third roll is 6 x C(5, 2) x (100/7776) x C(3, 1) x (25/216) x (1/36) 0.74 percent.The probability of rolling one of a kind, another die to match it on the second roll, and then a three of a kind on the third roll is (6!/7776) x C(4, 1) x (100/1296) x (1/216) 0.01 percent.The probability of rolling one of a kind, a three of a kind to match on the second roll, followed by a match on the third roll is (6!/7776) x C(4, 3) x (5/1296) x (1/6) 0.02 percent.The probability of rolling one of a kind, a pair to match it on the second roll, and then another pair to match on the third roll is (6!/7776) x C(4, 2) x (25/1296) x (1/36) 0.03 percent. We add all of the above probabilities together to determine the probability of rolling a Yahtzee in three rolls of the dice. This probability is 3.43 percent. Total Probability The probability of a Yahtzee in one roll is 0.08 percent, the probability of a Yahtzee in two rolls is 1.23 percent and the probability of a Yahtzee in three rolls is 3.43 percent. Since each of these are mutually exclusive, we add the probabilities together. This means that the probability of obtaining a Yahtzee in a given turn is approximately 4.74 percent. To put this into perspective, since 1/21 is approximately 4.74 percent, by chance alone a player should expect a Yahtzee once every 21 turns. In practice, it may take longer as an initial pair may be discarded to roll for something else, such as a straight.

Communities of practice and their contribution to organisational Essay

Communities of practice and their contribution to organisational learning - Essay Example According to Jeanand Etienne (1991, p21), learning is not dependent on whether the learner and the teacher has a common code and in most cases only requires a congruent participation of both the one seeking knowledge and the source in the same activities. Once different professionals within an organization come together, whether in a formal alliance (team) or informally, they are able to collaborate on projects and this increases productivity. For instance, if one professional has something they want to do, like if instance a project, they can bring together their resources, that is, knowledge and skills, to work on that project. Most of the collaborations within an organization are actually informal and the members are usually in the group because they enjoy working together and sharing ideas. In fact, according to Hasanali et al (2002, p.59), most organizations don not assess the usefulness of communities of practice until after the communities have set themselves and manifested th emselves in a good way. When employees within an organization come together to collaborate on projects, they are better able to share knowledge, skills and ideas. Apart from being able to deliver better work efficiently, collaboration in a firm is one of the most effective methods to manage an organization’s knowledge base. As the employees within the same domain of practice share information and pass on skills, they are more able to guarantee that the knowledge of the organization will remain in the organization. This can happen across all the departments of an organization as long as the collaboration is within one domain of profession. As Etienne (1998, p.4), says, such participation in collaborative teams defines what people do as well who we become and how we interact with what we do.? this is why communities of practice are so crucial within the organization as a tool to manage the organizational knowledge. At the same time, as Etienne et al, (2002, p.17), argued, commu nities of sharing are remarkably efficient implementing corporate strategy in the organization by bringing their ideas together. Experience sharing Within an organization, sharing experience is one of the ways in which communities of practice pass on their benefits to each other. This is probably one of the best forms of informal apprenticeship within an organization. One employee who is carrying out a project will be able to seek experience from others who have in the past achieved it. Again, this can also happen in any of the organization’s department and employees will benefit from the experience of others. For instance, if an employee is supposed to carry out some tasks such as advising a client on the best product to meet his needs, the employee can seek, among his or her community of practice in the organization, an individual who has done this in the past and then enlist their help. As the employee gets help from the other individual they will also be able to learn a l ot about the project they are carrying out. Reusing assets This refers to the fact that the individuals within a community of practice can and do use intellectual and knowledge assets that have already been made by members of the community of practice within the organization. For instance, if one accountant within an organiz

Moving Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Moving - Essay Example This is because of several physical, emotional, financial and mental needs the teenager is not prepared to be burdened with. A teenager at such a tender age has not matured to accommodate certain roles that accompany pregnancy and motherhood. A conservative home driven by religious fundamentalism can be a hot place for a girl who has become pregnant or who is a mother. For a person who is 17 years of age, or even lower, and is either expecting or has delivered, the experience can be overwhelming. This is a problem at home, and it is often ignored and frequently overlooked, yet affects a large number of homes. This paper explores the effects of problem of teenage pregnancy and teenage motherhood. Teenage pregnant girls have high chances of developing medical complications, more than pregnant adults. Pregnancy at such age is generally against societal norms and as such the victims often hide from parental view and they do not visit appropriate medical facilities to seek prenatal and postnatal care. The resulting consequence is a teenage pregnant girl or teenage mother who lacks vital nutrients and vitamins. Moreover, anemia, a condition associated with low levels of blood in the body may become a common feature. The teenage pregnant girl or the mother is still a child and is still in the process of growth other emotionally and physically, and hence can be affected by the physical and psychological trauma associated with any of the processes. The experience is tasking and constraining, particularly if one is in an environment where they are misunderstood (Booth, the American fiction writer, 177). There are certain bodily components that do not achieve full physical growth until one reaches certain age. For instance in girls, the pelvic bones do not achieve their maximum size till about 18. For a teenage girl who is pregnant, the delivery process must be complicated as the pelvic bones have not grown to allow